Editorial Board:
Editor:
George H. Conklin,
 North Carolina
 Central University

Board:
Bob Davis,
 North Carolina
 Agricultural and
 Technical State
 University

Richard Dixon,
 UNC-Wilmington

Ken Land,
 Duke University

Miles Simpson,
 North Carolina
 Central University

Ron Wimberley,
 N.C. State University

Robert Wortham,
 North Carolina
 Central University

Editorial Assistant

John W.M. Russell,
 Technical
 Consultant

® 

Volume 6, Number 2
Fall 2008

Students' Mentoring Relationships in Social Work Education

by

Terri Moore Brown
Fayetteville State University 

Chester Dilday
Fayetteville State University 

Oliver Johnson
Fayetteville State University 

Delma Jackson
Fayetteville State University 

Debra Brown
Fayetteville State University 

    Students in higher education institutions have the opportunity to gain the knowledge and skills that will help them meet their career aspirations. However, some students discover adjusting to college life is challenging. When persons make the transition from high school student to college student or undergraduate student to graduate student, they sometimes encounter academic, career and personal obstacles. Examples of such challenges include acquiring new study skills, getting acclimated to professors and classmates, and balancing job, family and school activities. The cost of tuition and books may cause some students financial difficulties. Other students may experience self-doubts about their academic abilities to succeed. Living away from home for the first time or being first generation students, where the pressure to succeed by family and friends is placed upon them can be stressful. Such challenges may have a negative impact on the retention and graduation rates of  students  (Johnson 2007; Johnson and Huwe 2003). 

    Because there are students who experience challenges, it is important for faculty members to be mindful of these challenges and make every effort to provide students an environment that promotes academic success. Mentorship is a reciprocal relationship that involves intentional career development through relationship building and bonding (Johnson 2007). Social work educators have the charge to help students embrace social work values and teach students the necessary knowledge and skills that will lead them in becoming competent social work professionals (Mumm 2006; Gibbs and Blakely 2000). A number of colleges use mentoring programs to increase student retention, graduation rates and professional competency. Research consistently reports that mentorship enhances the academic and career development of students in higher education (Campbell and Campbell 2000; Brown, Davis and McClendon 1999; Erkut and Mokros 1984). 

    Exchange theory is one theoretical framework used to understand mentoring relationships. This conception of mentorship is defined as an exchange of behaviors that is mutually beneficial to the mentee and the mentor. Mentors are persons with career experience who share their knowledge and use themselves as tools to model skills and values that are essential to mentees' careers. Some mentors advise students and help them navigate through academic and professional relationships, and university requirements. Mentors may also provide mentees sponsorship, exposure, visibility, coaching, protection and engage them in challenging academic and professional assignments. Some students participate in formal mentor programs while other students may identify their own mentors, or mentors may identify them (Johnson 2007; Brown, Davis, and McClendon 1999). Studies suggest antecedent factors, especially demographics, such as gender, race age, career factors, and relationship factors, influence the formation, development, maintenance and information exchange between mentors and mentees (Young 2000). Some researchers report mentors tend to mentor individuals with whom they identify and have similar career and research interests (Shapiro, Haseltine, and Rowe 1978; Kanter 1977; Hill and Costillo 1999).

    Undergraduate students are often disadvantaged in comparison to graduate students in mentoring relationships. Johnson (2007) contends fewer undergraduate students receive mentorship because they may not value the benefits of mentorship or they may not have the assertiveness to seek potential mentors. Those undergraduate students, who receive mentorship, are often high achievers. Heinrich (1991) characterized mentoring as an important component of graduate training. Graduate students who are assertive, motivated, dedicated, and excel academically most likely receive mentorship (Green and Bauer 1995).

    There are a number of research findings that support students benefiting from mentorship. Effective mentorship is associated with students having higher grade point averages. In addition, there is an increased likelihood of students completing their degrees, and having an overall satisfaction with their college and academic program. Furthermore, students may have an inside track regarding job possibilities and gain employment quicker, higher incomes, rapid promotions, and earlier opportunities for acquiring leadership positions in professional organizations. It is also suggested mentored students exhibit higher professional confidence, professional identity and greater commitment to their profession (Johnson 2007).

    Across disciplines, there has been an explosion in the number of studies that focus on faculty and student mentoring relationships (Gonzalez 2001; Cunic, McLaughlin and Evans 2000; Dickinson and Johnson 2000; Koch and Johnson 2000; Frestedt 1995; Mutchnick and Mutchnick 1991; Erkut and Mokros 1984). Mentorship is discussed in the social work discourse in relation to career satisfaction (Collins 1994); mentoring within the workplace (Tabbi 1983; York, Henley, and Gamble 1988), social workers' perceptions of mentorship (Collins, Kamya, and Tourse 1997); mentorship and administration (Kelly 2001; Tabbi 1983; Turner 2000; York et al., 1988) and racial diversity (Collins et al., 1997) and empowering social work faculty and administrators through mentorship (Hayes 1986; Berger 1990; Robbins 1989). However, Pearson's (1988) study, which addresses the educational orientations of social work graduate faculty and students, is one of few studies that focus on student mentoring experiences.

    The purpose of this study is to provide information to prospective and current mentors and mentees who are interested in developing or enhancing  their mentoring skills.  In this study, the authors sought to address the following questions: 

1. Are social work students engaged in mentoring relationships? 
2. What are the characteristics of students who have mentors and those without mentors? 
3. Of the students engaged in mentoring relationships are same-race or cross-cultural mentoring relationships more prevalent? 
4. What are the characteristics of mentors? 
5. for students who have mentors, what type of activities do mentees do with their mentors? 
6. Of the students without a mentor but would like to have mentors, what types of activities would students like to do with their mentors? And 
7. What types of mentoring programs do students view as beneficial? For the purpose of this study a mentor was defined as someone students perceive as guiding them, either formally or informally, in their academic development, career development, or both. 

    The sample, which consisted of social work field practicum students pursuing undergraduate and graduate degrees, was derived from 20 colleges and universities located in a southeastern state.  Thirteen social work programs agreed to participate. The social work programs were identified from a 2002 list of accredited and candidacy status programs compiled by a state's social work program Field Consortium. Data were collected from March 2002 to May 2002.  Social work field directors were contacted by telephone and asked to participate in this study by distributing an 80-item questionnaire to his or her intern students. Field directors at each institution were asked to distribute the questionnaire to 356 field practicum students. A total of 356 questionnaires were mailed to the 13 social work programs.  127 students completed and submitted the questionnaire, yielding a response rate of 36%. 

    An 80-item questionnaire was used to acquire a descriptive profile of students’ interest in mentorship, mentoring relationships, mentor characteristics and demographics. Mentor was defined as someone students perceive as guiding them, either formally or informally, in their academic development, career development, or both. This definition was inserted in the instruction section of the questionnaire to facilitate the students' understanding of a mentor.

    It took students about 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into five sections. In the first section, there were a series of multiple-choice questions regarding mentor characteristics for those students who reported having mentors. The second section, which contained a scale of agreement importance (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree), was evaluated in relation to the types of activities the students did with their mentors. In the third section, agreement importance was evaluated (using the same scale as above) in relation to the types of activities students without mentors desired to have with prospective mentors. To enhance validity, these activities were identified through review of the literature and consultation with faculty and students. The fourth section focused on student demographic multiple-choice questions.  One fill-in-the blank question was used to acquire students' ages. To determine what types of mentoring programs students would find beneficial, in the fifth section, students were asked if they were interested in one-on-one mentoring, group mentoring or web-based group forums, chat rooms, or threaded discussion group meetings. A comment section was also provided to obtain students’ observations and thoughts.

    Data regarding respondents' selected demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. 

    The students ranged in age from 20 to 61 years (M=28.45, SD=9.406). 61% of students were White, 35% were Black and the remaining students were other (3%).  The majority (90%) of students were female. 60% of undergraduate social work students and 40% of graduate social work students responded to the questionnaire.  43% of students held part-time jobs, 13% were employed full-time,  while 43% were not employed at all. Of the 127 students, 74% were commuters, while 25 % of students resided in the dorms. A majority (69%) of students matriculated at a public college/university. 52% of students reported having mentors. There was a significant difference in how mentors of institutions of different sizes relate to their mentees, chi square (N=64)=10.210, p < .05. Mentors at small (under 5,000 student enrollment) and mentors at large institutions (over 15,000 student enrollment) are more likely to involve their mentees in research activities than students in mid-size institutions. Students with and without mentors were asked what method of mentoring would be most beneficial to them. 91% of the students reported one-on-one mentoring as beneficial and 69% reported group mentoring as beneficial. Only 17% of students reported web-based group forums, chat rooms or threaded discussion group mentoring as beneficial.

    In Table 2 for students with mentors, nearly all (90%) of the students were female. 

    Over half (64%) of the students were white, 32% were Black and the remaining students reported other. Of the students’ mentors, mentors and mentees were overwhelming of the same race, chi square (N=63) = 42.350, p<.05. 94% of Black students had Black mentors and 91% of white students had white mentors. The majority (97%) of students were enrolled full-time. Almost half (46%) of the students were employed part-time, 41% not employed and 12% were employed full-time. 65% of students were commuters. Students were asked how were their mentoring relationships  formed. A little more than half (54%) of the students reported their relationships with their mentors developed over time. Only 30% of graduate students have a mentor. There was no significant difference by race. 64% of White students and 31.8% of Black students reported having mentors. 91% of the students were female. Students' reported GPA ranged from 2.30 to 4.00 (M=3.35, SD=.4762).

    There were several significant differences between mentored and non mentored students. More undergraduate students had mentors than graduate students, chi square (N=127)=4.733, p<.05. Students from private colleges were more likely to have mentors than students from public colleges, chi square (N=126)=4.304, p<.05. Students who lived on campus were more likely to have mentors than those students who did not live on campus, chi square (N=126)=5.059, p<.05. Students with evening courses were less likely to have mentors than students who had day courses, chi square (N=127)=4.444, p<.05. 

    Of those mentors, 84% were female. In regards to race, 71% of mentors were White and 29% were Black. Among mentors, 32% were social work faculty members, 31% were social work field instructors, 17% were social work practitioners, 6% were faculty members outside the social work program and the remaining were other. 

    Students were asked what type of activities did they perform with their mentors (Table 3). 

    The majority (86%) of students reported that they met with their mentors frequently. It is noteworthy that the majority of students reported their mentors helped them define their career goals (86%) and discussed career opportunities with them (80%). Nearly all of the students reported feeling comfortable asking their mentors for guidance and assistance (97%), and that their mentors provided them emotional support (94%). Over half of the students reported their mentors encouraged them to get involved on local, state and national levels (67%) and get involved in professional organizations (80%). and encouraged them to advance their education (47%). Almost 90% of students reported their mentors encouraged them to advance their education. One student commented, "MSW programs should include a flexible mentoring program. My mentor is invaluable." Blacks were more likely than White Mentors to engage in nine of the 21 mentoring roles listed on the questionnaire. These differences are summarized in Table 4.

     61 students reported they did not have a mentor. Of the students without mentors, 89% were female. Over half  (59%) of the students were White and 38% were Black. Almost half (46%) of the students were not employed, 39% were employed part-time, and 15% were employed full-time. Half (51%) of the students were undergraduate, while the remaining (49%) were MSW students. The majority (93%) of students were enrolled full-time. The majority (84%) of students were commuters. Students' reported GPA ranged from 2.25 to 4.00 (M=3.43, SD=.4819).

    The overwhelming majority of the students without mentors reported they desired to have mentors that encouraged them to advance their education (95%), help them define career goals (98%), provide opportunities to network outside the social work program (95%), discuss internship opportunities (91%), identify scholarships, fellowships and grants (91%), and identify books, journals and articles for them to read (93%). 100% of students indicated that they would want mentors to discuss career opportunities with them. Being encouraged by their mentors to present papers at conferences was the least desired activity students wanted to do with their mentors. All of the percentages of students’ desired relationships with mentors are presented in Table 5.

    The purpose of this study was to expand ideas for mentoring by identifying a selection of mentoring activities for mentors and social work students, and giving academic administrators some ideas on establishing or enhancing mentoring cultures within their academic environments. Mentorship can be a powerful resource for social work students. Through mentorship, students can navigate through college, establish their professional identity and meet their career aspirations. In addition, faculty may use mentorship to increase student retention and graduation rates. Due to the small student response rate, the authors view the findings with caution.

    In this study, students' responses suggest that the students recognize the benefits of mentorship. Many of the students, who had mentors, were getting intentional guidance on career development. Over half of the students reported having mentors and for those students who did not have mentors, the majority wanted mentorship. Findings also suggest persons, such as faculty members, field instructors and social workers are willing to mentor students that participated in this study. Contrary to Johnson's (2007) findings, more undergraduate social work students were receiving mentorship than graduate social work students. 

    Web-based mentoring is sometimes used to enhance the mentoring process (Bierema and Merriam 2002; Cravens 2003; Cascio and Gasker 2001;  Mitchell 1999). Although in this study, students' mentoring preferences was one-on-one and group mentoring. The authors speculate that with the increase of social networking activities, such as Facebook, MySpace and UTube, these tools may prove to have value to mentoring relationships in the future. The authors wondered if students in this study were possibly unfamiliar with web-based mentoring. If yes, this unfamiliarity may have contributed to an unfavorable view. 

    There were categories of students who overwhelmingly reported that they had mentors. Compared to evening students, commuters and students who attended public colleges, students who took their courses during day, residence students and students who attended private colleges reported having mentors more frequently. The authors speculate that evening students because they may go directly home or to work after classes may have less accessibility to faculty and other prospective mentors. Because faculty may not see these students as often as day and  residence students, it is sometimes easy to make the assumption that evening students or commuters are not interested in other aspects of academia other than going to classes. Those academic programs that want to promote a mentoring culture within their departments may want to assess inaccessible students’ possible interest in mentorship and generate strategies that provide intentional mentoring to those inaccessible students who are interested in receiving mentorship.

    The steady rise in college tuition makes affordability a major obstacle for students who want to attend college.  Tuition is increasing faster than people's ability to pay, and the availability of financial assistance has not kept pace (Carey 2004). Given the concern over affordability, it is not surprising in this study the majority of those students without mentors reported that if they had a mentor, they would want their mentors to keep them informed of available scholarships, fellowships and grants. Mentors, especially faculty mentors, can be a useful resource for students in identifying these monetary awards because they are usually the first ones informed about these opportunities, and they have greater accessibility to the students. 

    Networking and professional development are important activities that provide students opportunities to meet people with similar interests, to share experiences, and to learn about resources that can help them prepare for the social work profession. These mentoring activities may increase student retention and graduation rates by providing students with additional academic and professional support. In current study, non-mentored students expressed interest in prospective mentors involving them in their research, providing them opportunities to network outside the social work program, identifying professional development programs for them to attend, helping them avoid pitfalls of school, encouraging them to get involved on local state and national levels as well as encouraging them to get involved in professional organizations.

    There were some differences when comparing Table 2 with Table 5. Despite that there was a low percentage of students reporting that their mentors involved them in their research and encouraged them to present papers at conferences, more students who did not have mentors reported if they had mentors that they would have liked for their mentors to involve them in the research and encourage them to do conference presentations. The authors feel this is worthwhile noting because it is felt that social workers need to research and present “social work best practices,” and scholarly productive faculty may model these behaviors.

    The results from this study gave cause for the authors to think about same race and across-race mentoring. The findings in this study revealed that mentors and mentees were overwhelmingly of the same race and that Black mentors were more likely than White mentors to engage their mentees in a number of mentoring activities relating to funding education, advancing their education, providing strategies for academic success, promoting visibility by encouraging involvement in professional organizations, serving as officers in professional organization. Students may want to consider exploring all their options when looking for a mentor and discover which option is best for them. It would be interesting to know if same race and across-race mentoring relationships influence the effectiveness of mentoring relationships.

    Finally, a dearth of students of color and males participated in this study. This is no surprise because studies over the years, have consistently demonstrated there is a paucity of persons of color and males graduating from social work programs (Lennon 1999, 2002, 2004; Mullen, Combre, Mattaini, Corwin, Gatenio, Castanuela and Salas 1993). Having a diversified pool of social workers provides unique perspectives, knowledge and skills that strengthen the development and delivery of social service programs and services. The recruitment, retention and graduation of persons of color are already common topics across university and college campuses, and research studies, across disciplines, suggest mentorship is a helpful resource for recruiting, retaining and graduating minorities (Hill and Castillo 1999; Nettles 1990; Warner 2001). 

    The findings from this study may be useful to social work programs and prospective persons who desire to mentor social work students. A high percentage of students without mentors reported they desired a mentor. These results suggest  students in this study are looking for mentors who can help them develop the strategies and the coping skills they need to succeed in academia. 

    There are several important limitations of this study. Since this response rate of only 36% (127 out of 356) is less than 50%, the issue of the representativeness of this particular sample should be considered when interpreting the results (Rubin and Babbie 2007). This somewhat low number also contributed to the small numbers of students in the subsamples that made up the groups that were used in the analysis. These small numbers (66 students with mentors and 61 without mentors) suggest that any conclusions and interpretations made in this report should be used with caution.

    Further study is needed to determine if social work education programs have mentoring programs, and if yes, is mentorship effective in retaining and graduating social work students, especially students of color and male student?  Also, are social workers interested in providing mentorship and if they are, are they willing to participate in formal mentoring programs? It would be beneficial to hear from social work graduates who had mentors to determine if the mentorship they received was effective and when they received mentorship, if there were any obstacles they encountered. 
 
 

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